Subjective Dry Eye Symptoms in Pregnant Women-A SPEED Survey.

Aim: Multisystemic physiological changes in pregnancy can result in tear film and refractive changes in the eye. We report dry eye prevalence in pregnant women using Standard Patient Evaluation of Eye Dryness (SPEED) questionnaire. Methods: The SPEED questionnaire was self-administered cross-sectionally to 428 pregnant women (mean age: 26.8 ± 4.4 years) with clinically confirmed pregnancy from two obstetric clinics in Chennai, India. Subjects with predisposing risk factors for dry eye were excluded from the study. Subjects were categorized as normal, moderate, and severe dry eye based on the SPEED score. Results: Among the women, 48.5% of the subjects had symptoms like dryness, grittiness or scratchiness, soreness or irritation, burning or watering, or eye fatigue. About 2.3% had moderate dry eye according to SPEED questionnaire criteria. Eye fatigue was the most reported symptom and was present in 76.4% of women. The symptom frequency score and severity score had a strong and significant correlation (r = 0.95, P < .001). No significant correlation was noted among SPEED score vs age (r = -0.02, P > .05). No significant correlation was found between symptoms of dry eye and gravidity (ρ = -0.006, P > .05) and trimester (ρ = 0.38, P > .05). Binary logistic regression showed that only occupational status and systemic condition was significantly associated with dry eye symptoms. Conclusion: About half the pregnant women at the visit reported having one or more dry eye-related symptoms. As per the composite SPEED questionnaire score, dry eye was not prevalent among pregnant women irrespective of their age, gravidity, and the trimester, but we found a majority of pregnant women reported to have experienced dry eye-related symptoms, though tolerable. Awareness about dry eye during pregnancy will improve eye care seeking behaviour in pregnant women.

Role of reading medium and audio distractors on visual search

Purpose: Visual search is an active perceptual task influenced by objective factors and subjective factors such as task difficulty, distractors, attention and familiarity respectively. We studied the effect of different search directions, task medium and presence or absence of audio distractors on visual search time in young normal subjectsMethodsTwenty-four young (19–27 years) subjects with normal ocular health (except refractive error) participated in the study after obtaining informed consent. Subjects performed a word search task of ten 7-letter words of medium difficulty level. It was performed by each subject in Up-down, Down-Up, Left-Right, Right-Left, Diagonal and Random directions, with equal number of distractors. The task was performed in paper and digital medium, with or without audio distractors. The conditions were performed in random order by each subject and the time taken to accurately complete the word search was documented for each condition.ResultThe visual search time (VST) was significantly different with different search directions (ANOVA p<0.0001, df=5), considering both digital and non-digital medium, with or without audio distractors. The average VST was the least for left-right search direction (100±7.2 s) and was highest for random search direction (291±19 s), on a digital medium (VSTdigital: 183±77 s) and in presence of an audio distractor (VSTaudio: 184±77 s). The VST scores were not correlated with the age (r=-0.14, p = 0.25).ConclusionThe visual search time is significantly delayed for search direction other than left-right direction and in presence of an audio distractor on a digital medium. These factors could play a significant role in visual orientation and specific tasks such as reading. (AU)

Role of reading medium and audio distractors on visual search.

PURPOSE: Visual search is an active perceptual task influenced by objective factors and subjective factors such as task difficulty, distractors, attention and familiarity respectively. We studied the effect of different search directions, task medium and presence or absence of audio distractors on visual search time in young normal subjects METHODS: Twenty-four young (19-27 years) subjects with normal ocular health (except refractive error) participated in the study after obtaining informed consent. Subjects performed a word search task of ten 7-letter words of medium difficulty level. It was performed by each subject in Up-down, Down-Up, Left-Right, Right-Left, Diagonal and Random directions, with equal number of distractors. The task was performed in paper and digital medium, with or without audio distractors. The conditions were performed in random order by each subject and the time taken to accurately complete the word search was documented for each condition. RESULT: The visual search time (VST) was significantly different with different search directions (ANOVA p<0.0001, df=5), considering both digital and non-digital medium, with or without audio distractors. The average VST was the least for left-right search direction (100±7.2 s) and was highest for random search direction (291±19 s), on a digital medium (VSTdigital: 183±77 s) and in presence of an audio distractor (VSTaudio: 184±77 s). The VST scores were not correlated with the age (r=-0.14, p = 0.25). CONCLUSION: The visual search time is significantly delayed for search direction other than left-right direction and in presence of an audio distractor on a digital medium. These factors could play a significant role in visual orientation and specific tasks such as reading.

Vision with different presbyopia corrections simulated with a portable binocular visual simulator.

Presbyopes can choose today among different corrections to provide them with functional vision at far and near, and the outcomes and patient satisfaction depend on the selection. In this study, we present a binocular and portable vision simulator, based on temporal multiplexing of two synchronized tunable lenses allowing see-through and programmable visual simulations of presbyopic corrections. Seventeen binocular corrections were tested: 3 Monofocal (Far, Intermediate, Near), 4 Simultaneous Vision (bifocal, trifocal), 2 Monovision (far and near in either eye) and 8 Modified Monovision corrections (Simultaneous vision in one eye, Monofocal in the other eye). Perceived visual quality was assessed through the simulated corrections in 8 cyclopleged subjects who viewed a composite realistic visual scene with high contrast letters and a landscape at far (4 m) and a high contrast text at intermediate (66 cm) and near (33 cm) distances. Perceptual scores were obtained on a scale of 0 to 5 (low to high perceived quality). Perceptual preference was assessed by judging 36 random image pairs (6 repetitions) viewed through 9 binocular presbyopic corrections using two-interval forced choice procedures. The average score, across far and near distances, was the highest for Monovision (4.4±0.3), followed by Modified Monovision (3.4±0.1), Simultaneous Vision (3.0±0.1) and Monofocal corrections (2.9±0.2). However, the mean difference between far and near was lower for Simultaneous Vision and Monovision (0.4±0.1 PS) than Modified Monovision (1.8±0.7) or monofocal corrections (3.3±1.5). A strong significant correlation was found between the perceptual scores and the percentages of energy in focus, for each correction and distance (R = 0.64, p<0.0001). Multivariate ANOVA revealed significant influence of observation distances (p<10-9) and patients (p = 0.01) on Perceptual Score. In conclusion, we have developed a binocular portable vision simulator that can simulate rapidly and non-invasively different combinations of presbyopic corrections. This tool has applications in systematic clinical evaluation of presbyopia corrections.

Role of parafovea in blur perception.

The blur experienced by our visual system is not uniform across the visual field. Additionally, lens designs with variable power profile such as contact lenses used in presbyopia correction and to control myopia progression create variable blur from the fovea to the periphery. The perceptual changes associated with varying blur profile across the visual field are unclear. We therefore measured the perceived neutral focus with images of different angular subtense (from 4° to 20°) and found that the amount of blur, for which focus is perceived as neutral, increases when the stimulus was extended to cover the parafovea. We also studied the changes in central perceived neutral focus after adaptation to images with similar magnitude of optical blur across the image or varying blur from center to the periphery. Altering the blur in the periphery had little or no effect on the shift of perceived neutral focus following adaptation to normal/blurred central images. These perceptual outcomes should be considered while designing bifocal optical solutions for myopia or presbyopia.

Comparison of vision through surface modulated and spatial light modulated multifocal optics.

Spatial-light-modulators (SLM) are increasingly used as active elements in adaptive optics (AO) systems to simulate optical corrections, in particular multifocal presbyopic corrections. In this study, we compared vision with lathe-manufactured multi-zone (2-4) multifocal, angularly and radially, segmented surfaces and through the same corrections simulated with a SLM in a custom-developed two-active-element AO visual simulator. We found that perceived visual quality measured through real manufactured surfaces and SLM-simulated phase maps corresponded highly. Optical simulations predicted differences in perceived visual quality across different designs at Far distance, but showed some discrepancies at intermediate and near.

Testing vision with angular and radial multifocal designs using Adaptive Optics.

Multifocal vision corrections are increasingly used solutions for presbyopia. In the current study we have evaluated, optically and psychophysically, the quality provided by multizone radial and angular segmented phase designs. Optical and relative visual quality were evaluated using 8 subjects, testing 6 phase designs. Optical quality was evaluated by means of Visual Strehl-based-metrics (VS). The relative visual quality across designs was obtained through a psychophysical paradigm in which images viewed through 210 pairs of phase patterns were perceptually judged. A custom-developed Adaptive Optics (AO) system, including a Hartmann-Shack sensor and an electromagnetic deformable mirror, to measure and correct the eye's aberrations, and a phase-only reflective Spatial Light Modulator, to simulate the phase designs, was developed for this study. The multizone segmented phase designs had 2-4 zones of progressive power (0 to +3D) in either radial or angular distributions. The response of an "ideal observer" purely responding on optical grounds to the same psychophysical test performed on subjects was calculated from the VS curves, and compared with the relative visual quality results. Optical and psychophysical pattern-comparison tests showed that while 2-zone segmented designs (angular & radial) provided better performance for far and near vision, 3- and 4-zone segmented angular designs performed better for intermediate vision. AO-correction of natural aberrations of the subjects modified the response for the different subjects but general trends remained. The differences in perceived quality across the different multifocal patterns are, in a large extent, explained by optical factors. AO is an excellent tool to simulate multifocal refractions before they are manufactured or delivered to the patient, and to assess the effects of the native optics to their performance.

Perceived image quality with simulated segmented bifocal corrections.

Bifocal contact or intraocular lenses use the principle of simultaneous vision to correct for presbyopia. A modified two-channel simultaneous vision simulator provided with an amplitude transmission spatial light modulator was used to optically simulate 14 segmented bifocal patterns (+ 3 diopters addition) with different far/near pupillary distributions of equal energy. Five subjects with paralyzed accommodation evaluated image quality and subjective preference through the segmented bifocal corrections. There are strong and systematic perceptual differences across the patterns, subjects and observation distances: 48% of the conditions evaluated were significantly preferred or rejected. Optical simulations (in terms of through-focus Strehl ratio from Hartmann-Shack aberrometry) accurately predicted the pattern producing the highest perceived quality in 4 out of 5 patients, both for far and near vision. These perceptual differences found arise primarily from optical grounds, but have an important neural component.

Erratum: Perceived image quality with simulated segmented bifocal corrections: publisher's note.

[This corrects the article on p. 4388 in vol. 7.].

Differences in visual quality with orientation of a rotationally asymmetric bifocal intraocular lens design.

PURPOSE: To evaluate visual and perceptual performance for different orientations of a rotationally asymmetric bifocal intraocular lens (IOL) (M-Plus) simulated optically using a simultaneous vision simulator. SETTING: Instituto de Optica, Madrid, Spain. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. METHODS: Perceptual quality and decimal high-contrast visual acuity (HCVA) was measured under cycloplegia for 8 orientations of the asymmetric bifocal IOL phase pattern at far, intermediate, and near distances simulated with a simultaneous vision simulator using face images and tumbling E targets. The preferred orientation at each distance was calculated as the centroid of the data for 8 orientations. The visual Strehl value was calculated using the subjects' ocular aberrations and multifocal pattern at each orientation. Optical predictions were obtained by implementing a differential visual Strehl values-based ideal observer model. RESULTS: The study comprised 20 subjects (aged 21 to 62 years). Horizontal orientation (near segment at 0 or 180 degrees ± 45 [SD]) was preferred by 14 subjects and by 13 subjects at far and near distances, respectively; 8 subjects showed strong orientation preferences. The mean difference in preferred orientation between far and near was 27 ± 22 degrees. No significant differences in HCVA were observed. Optical predictions correlated strongly and significantly with measurements (far r = 0.71, near r = 0.62; P < .0001). The mean difference between measurement and simulation in the preferred orientation was 28 ± 29 degrees at far and 36 ± 28 degrees at near. CONCLUSIONS: The perception varied for different orientations of an asymmetric bifocal IOL design tested using a simultaneous vision simulator. Optimum orientation was driven by interactions of the design with the eye's optical aberrations. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE: None of the authors has a financial or proprietary interest in any material or method mentioned.

Single neural code for blur in subjects with different interocular optical blur orientation.

The ability of the visual system to compensate for differences in blur orientation between eyes is not well understood. We measured the orientation of the internal blur code in both eyes of the same subject monocularly by presenting pairs of images blurred with real ocular point spread functions (PSFs) of similar blur magnitude but varying in orientations. Subjects assigned a level of confidence to their selection of the best perceived image in each pair. Using a classification-images-inspired paradigm and applying a reverse correlation technique, a classification map was obtained from the weighted averages of the PSFs, representing the internal blur code. Positive and negative neural PSFs were obtained from the classification map, representing the neural blur for best and worse perceived blur, respectively. The neural PSF was found to be highly correlated in both eyes, even for eyes with different ocular PSF orientations (rPos = 0.95; rNeg = 0.99; p < 0.001). We found that in subjects with similar and with different ocular PSF orientations between eyes, the orientation of the positive neural PSF was closer to the orientation of the ocular PSF of the eye with the better optical quality (average difference was ∼10°), while the orientation of the positive and negative neural PSFs tended to be orthogonal. These results suggest a single internal code for blur with orientation driven by the orientation of the optical blur of the eye with better optical quality.

A cyclopean neural mechanism compensating for optical differences between the eyes.

The two eyes of an individual routinely differ in their optical and neural properties, yet percepts through either eye remain more similar than predicted by these differences. Little is known as to how the brain resolves this conflicting information. Differences in visual inputs from the two eyes have been studied extensively in the context of binocular vision and rivalry [1], but it remains unknown how the visual system calibrates and corrects for normal variability in image quality between the eyes, and whether this correction is applied to each eye separately or after their signals have converged. To test this, we used adaptive optics to control and manipulate the blur projected on each retina, and then compared judgments of image focus through either eye and how these judgments were biased by adapting to different levels of blur. Despite significant interocular differences in the magnitude of optical blur, the blur level that appeared best focused was the same through both eyes, and corresponded to the ocular blur of the less aberrated eye. Moreover, for both eyes, blur aftereffects depended on whether the adapting blur was stronger or weaker than the native blur of the better eye, with no aftereffect when the blur equaled the aberrations of the better eye. Our results indicate that the neural calibration for the perception of image focus reflects a single 'cyclopean' site that is set monocularly by the eye with better optical quality. Consequently, what people regard as 'best-focused' matches the blur encountered through the eye with better optics, even when judging the world through the eye with poorer optics.

Short-term neural adaptation to simultaneous bifocal images.

Simultaneous vision is an increasingly used solution for the correction of presbyopia (the age-related loss of ability to focus near images). Simultaneous Vision corrections, normally delivered in the form of contact or intraocular lenses, project on the patient's retina a focused image for near vision superimposed with a degraded image for far vision, or a focused image for far vision superimposed with the defocused image of the near scene. It is expected that patients with these corrections are able to adapt to the complex Simultaneous Vision retinal images, although the mechanisms or the extent to which this happens is not known. We studied the neural adaptation to simultaneous vision by studying changes in the Natural Perceived Focus and in the Perceptual Score of image quality in subjects after exposure to Simultaneous Vision. We show that Natural Perceived Focus shifts after a brief period of adaptation to a Simultaneous Vision blur, similar to adaptation to Pure Defocus. This shift strongly correlates with the magnitude and proportion of defocus in the adapting image. The magnitude of defocus affects perceived quality of Simultaneous Vision images, with 0.5 D defocus scored lowest and beyond 1.5 D scored "sharp". Adaptation to Simultaneous Vision shifts the Perceptual Score of these images towards higher rankings. Larger improvements occurred when testing simultaneous images with the same magnitude of defocus as the adapting images, indicating that wearing a particular bifocal correction improves the perception of images provided by that correction.

Pregnancy-triggered iatrogenic (post-laser in situ keratomileusis) corneal ectasia--a case report.

PURPOSE: To report a patient who developed bilateral corneal ectasia, during pregnancy, one and a half years after laser in situ keratomileusis for correction of myopia. METHOD: Case report with relevant literature review. RESULTS: A 20-year-old woman, with a stable myopic astigmatism underwent laser in situ keratomileusis for the correction of her refractive error. Preoperative clinical examination and topographic automated keratoconus screening did not suggest keratoconus in either eye. The patient had a preoperative corneal thickness of 527 and 525 microm, and a postoperative residual bed thickness of 305 and 282 microm in the right and left eyes, respectively. After being fully satisfied with the outcome of the procedure, she reported 18 months later, in the first trimester of pregnancy, with signs and symptoms of corneal ectasia, which steadily worsened with advancing pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Pregnancy could prompt hormonal changes, which in turn could affect the biomechanical stability of the cornea, leading to corneal ectasia.